The Atom and Time keeping

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Nuclear Weapons, computers, GPS, atomic clocks and carbon dating – there is much more to atoms than you think.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century mankind has been obsessed with atoms and the minutiae of our universe. Much of the first part of the last century, mankind became obsessed with harnessing the hidden power of the atom, revealed to us by the work of Albert Einstein and finalised by Robert Oppenheimer.

However, there has been much more to our exploration of the atom than just weapons. The studying of the atoms (quantum mechanics) has been at the root of most of our modern technologies such as computers and the Internet.  It is also in the forefront of chronology – the measuring of time.

The atom plays a key role in both timekeeping and time prediction. The atomic clock, which is utilised all over the world by computer networks using NTP servers and other technical systems such as air traffic control and satellite navigation.

Atomic clocks work by monitoring the extremely high frequency oscillations of individual atoms (traditionally caesium) that never changes at particular energy states. As caesium atoms resonate over a 9 billion times every second and never alters it its frequency it makes the m highly accurate (losing less than a second every 100 million years)

But atoms can also be used to work out not just accurate and precise time but they can also be utilised in establishing the age of objects. Carbon dating  is the name given to this method which measures the natural decay of carbon atoms. All of us are made primarily of carbon and like other elements carbon ‘decays’ over time where the atoms lose energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation.

In some atoms such as uranium this happens very quickly, however, other atoms such as iron are highly stable and decay very, very slowly. Carbon, while it decays quicker than iron is still slow to lose energy but the energy loss is exact over time so by analysing carbon atoms and measuring their strength it can be quite accurately ascertained when the carbon originally formed.

Reported GPS Fears Should Not Affect Time Synchonisation

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Following recent media reports on the lack of investment in the USA’s Global Navigation Satellite System – GPS (Global Positioning System) and the potential failure of navigational receivers in recent years, time synchronisation specialists, Galleon Systems, would like to ensure all their customers that any failure of the GPS network will not affect current GPS NTP time servers.

Recent media reports following a study by the US government’s accountability office (GAO), that concluded mismanagement and a lack of investment meant some the current number of 31 operational satellites may fall to below 24 at times in 2011 and 2012 which would hamper its accuracy.

However, the UK’s National Physical Laboratory are confident that any potential problems of the GPS navigation facilities will not affect timing information utilised by GPS NTP servers.

A spokesman for the UK’s National Physical Laboratory confirmed that timing information should be unaffected by any potential future satellite failure.

“There is estimated to be a 20% risk that in 2011-2012 the number of satellites in the GPS constellation could drop below 24 at times.

“If that were to happen, there could be a slight reduction in the position accuracy of GPS receivers at some periods, and in particular they might take longer to acquire a fix in some locations when first powered up. However, even then the effect would be a degradation of performance, rather than complete failure to operate.

“A GPS timing receiver is unlikely to be affected significantly since, once it has determined its position when turned on, every satellite it observes provides it with useful timing information. A small reduction in the number of satellites in view should not degrade its performance much.”

MSF Outage 11 June NPL Maintenance

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The UK’s MSF signal broadcast from Anthorn, Cumbria and utilised by UK NTP server users is be turned off for a four hour period on 11 June for scheduled maintenance. The MSF 60 kHz time and frequency standard will be off between 10.00 and 14:00 BST (9:00 – 13:00 UTC).

Users of NTP time servers that utilise the MSF signal should be aware of the outage but shouldn’t panic. Most network time servers that use the Anthorn system should still function adequately and the lack of a timing signal for four hours should not create any synchronisation problems or clock drift.

However, any testing of time servers that utilise MSF should be conducted before or after the scheduled outage. Further information is available from NPL.

Any network time server users that require ultra-precise precision or are feel temporary loss of this signal could cause repercussions in their time synchronisation should seriously consider utilising the GPS signal as an additional means of receiving a time signal.

GPS is available literally anywhere on the planet (as long as there is a good clear view of the sky) and is never down due to outages.

For further information on GPS NTP server can be found here.

Computers, Communications, Atomic Clocks and the NTP Server

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Time synchronisation on computer networks is often conducted by the NTP server. NTP time servers do not generate any timing information themselves but are merely methods of communicating with an atomic clock.

The precision of an atomic clock is widely talked about. Many of them can maintain time to nanosecond precision (billionths of a second) which means they won’t drift beyond a second in accuracy in hundreds of millions of years.

However, what is less understood and talked about is why we need to have such accurate clocks, after-all the traditional methods of keeping time such as mechanical clocks, electronic watches and using the rotation of the Earth to keep track of the days has proved reliable for thousands of years.

However, the development of digital technology over recent years has been nearly solely reliant on the ultra high precision of an atomic clock. One of the most widely used applications for atomic clocks is in the communications industry.

For several years now telephone calls taken in most industrialized countries are now transmitted digitally. However, most telephone wires are simply copper cables (although many telephone companies are now investing in fibre optics) which can only transmit one packet of information at a time. Yet telephone wires have to carry many conversations down the same wires at the same time.

This is achieved by computers at the exchanges switching from one conversation to another thousands of times every second and all this has to be controlled by nano-second precision otherwise  the calls will become out of step and get jumbled – hence the need for. Atomic clocks; mobile phones, digital TV and Internet communications use similar technology.

The accuracy of atomic clocks is also the basis for satellite navigation such as GPS (global positioning system). GPS satellites contain an onboard atomic clock that generates and transmits a time signal. A GPS receiver will receive four of theses signals and use the timing information to work out how long the transmissions took to reach it and therefore the position of the receiver on Earth.

Current GPS systems are accurate to a few metres but to give an indication of how vital precision is, a one second drift of a GPS clock could see the GPS receiver be inaccurate by over 100 thousand miles (because of the  huge distances light and therefore transmissions take in one second).

Many of these technologies that depend on atomic clocks utilise NTP servers as the preferred way to communicate with atomic clocks making the NTP time server one of the most crucial pieces of equipment in the communication industries.

The NTP Time Server Essential Network Protection

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There are a myriad of hardware and software methods of protecting computers. Anti-virus software, firewalls, spyware and routers to name but a few yet perhaps the most important tools for keeping a network safe is often the most overlooked.

One of the reasons for this is that the network time server’s often referred to as the NTP time server (after the protocol Network Time Protocol) primary task is time synchronisation and not security.

The NTP server’s primary task is to retrieve a time signal from a UTC source (Coordinated Universal Time) which it then distributes it amongst the network, checking the clock on each system device and ensuring its running in synchronisation with UTC.

Here is where many network administrators fall down. They know that time synchronisation is vital for computer security. Without it, errors can not be logged (or even spotted) network attacks can’t be countered, data can be lost and if a malicious user does get into the system it is near impossible to discover what they were up to without all machines on a network corresponding to the same time.

However, the NTP server is where many network administrators think they can save a little money. ‘Why bother?’ ‘They say, ‘when you can log on to an Internet NTP server for free.’

Well, as the old saying goes there is no such thing as a free lunch or as it goes a free source of UTC time. Using internet time providers may be free but this is where many computer networks leave themselves open to abuse.

To utilise an internet source of time such as Microsoft’s, NIST or one of those on the NTP pool project may be free but they are also outside a networks firewall and these is where many network administrators come unstuck.

How to Synchronise Your PC to an Atomic Clock

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The world’s technologies have advanced dramatically over the last few decades with innovations likes the internet and satellite navigation having changed the way we live our lives.

Atomic clocks pay a key role in these technologies; their time signals are what are used by GPS receivers to plot location and many applications and transactions across the internet if it wasn’t for highly precise synchronisation.

In fact a global timescale has been developed that is based on the time told by atomic clocks. UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) ensures that computer networks across the globe can be synchronised to the exact same time.

Synchronising computers and networks to atomic clocks is relatively straight forward thanks in part to NTP (Network Time Protocol), a version of which is included in most operating systems and is also thanks to the number of public NTP servers that exist on the internet.

To synchronise a Windows PC to an atomic clock is done by simply double clocking the clock on the task bar and then configuring the Internet Time tab to a relevant NTP server. A list of public NTP servers can be found at the NTP pool website.

When configuring networks to UTC however, a public NTP server is not suitable as there are security issues about polling a time source outside the firewall. Public servers are also known as stratum 2 servers which means they receive the time from another device that gets it from an atomic clock. This indirect method means that there is often a compromise in accuracy, furthermore if the internet connection goes down or the time server site then the network will soon drift away from UTC.

A far more secure and stable method is to invest in a dedicated NTP time server. These devices receive a time signal directly from an atomic clock, either produced by a national physics lab like NIST or NPL via long wave radio or from GPS satellites.

A single dedicated NTP server will provide a stable, reliable and highly precise source of UTC and allow networks of hundreds and even thousands of devices to be synchronised to NTP.

Bringing Atomic Clock Precision to your Desktop

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Atomic clocks have been a huge influence on our modern lives with many of the technologies that have revolutionised the way we live our lives relying on their ultra precise time keeping abilities.

Atomic clocks are far different to other chronometers; a normal watch or clock will keep time fairly accurately but will lose second or two each day. An atomic clock on the other hand will not lose a second in millions of years.

In fact it is fair to say that an atomic clock doesn’t measure time but is the foundations we base our perceptions of time on. Let me explain, time, as Einstein demonstrated, is relative and the only constant in the universe is the speed of light (though a vacuum).

Measuring time with any real precision is therefore difficult as even the gravity on Earth skews time, slowing it down. It is also almost impossible to base time on any point of reference. Historically we have always used the revolution of the earth and reference to the celestial bodies as a basis for our time telling (24 hours in a day = one revolution of the Earth, 365 days = one revolution of the earth around the Sun etc).

Unfortunately the Earth’s rotation is not an accurate frame of reference to base our time keeping on. The earth slows down and speeds up in its revolution meaning some days are longer than others.

Atomic clocks however, used the resonance of atoms (normally caesium) at particular energy states. As these atoms vibrate at exact frequencies (or an exact number of times) this can be used as a basis for telling time. So after the development of the atomic clock the second has been defined as over 9 billion resonance ’ticks’ of the caesium atom.

The ultra precise nature of atomic clocks is the basis for technologies such as satellite navigation (GPS), air traffic control and internet trading. It is possible to use the precise nature of atomic clocks to synchronise computer networks too. All that is needed is a NTP time server (Network Time Protocol).
NTP servers receive the time from atomic clocks via a broadcast signal or the GPS network they then distribute it amongst a network ensuring all devices have the exact same, ultra precise time.

Essentials of Traffic Management NTP Server

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There are now reportedly as many cars on the road as there are households and it only takes a brief journey during rush hour to realise that this claim is quite possibly true.

Congestion is a huge problem in our towns and cities and controlling this traffic and keeping it moving is one of the most essential aspects of reducing congestion. Safety is also a concern on our roads as the chances of all those vehicles travelling around without occasionally hitting each other is close to zero but the problem can be exemplified by poor traffic management.

When it comes to controlling the traffic flows of our cities there is no greater weapon than the humble traffic light. In some cities these devices are simple timed lights that stop traffic one way and allow it the other and vice versa.

However, the potential of how traffic lights can reduce congestion is now being realised and thanks to the millisecond synchronisation made possible with NTP servers is now drastically reducing congestion is some of the world’s major cities.

Rather than just simple timed segments of green, amber and red, traffic lights can respond to the needs of the road, allowing more cars through in one direction whilst reducing it in others. They can also be used in conjunction with each other allowing green light passageways for cars in main routes.

However, all this is only possible if the traffic lights system throughout the whole city is synchronised together and that can only be achieved with a NTP time server.

NTP (Network Time Protocol) is simply an algorithm that is widely used for the purposes of synchronisation. A NTP server will receive a time signal from a precise source (normally an atomic clock) and the NTP software then distributes it amongst all devices on a network (in this case the traffic lights).

The NTP server will continually check the time on each device and ensure it corresponds to the time signal, ensuring all devices (traffic lights) are perfectly synchronised together allowing the entire traffic light system to be managed as a single, flexible traffic management system rather than individual random lights.

The World in Perfect Synchronization

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Synchronization is something we are familiar with everyday of our lives. From driving down the highway to walking crowded street; we automatically adapt our behaviour to synchronize with those around us. We drive in the same direction or walk the same thoroughfares as other commuters as failing to do so would make our journey a lot more difficult (and dangerous).

When it comes to timing, synchronisation is even more important. Even in our day to day dealings we expect a reasonable amount of synchronisation from people. When a meeting starts at 10am we expect everybody to be there within a few minutes.

However, when it comes to computer transactions across a network, accuracy in synchronisation becomes even more important where accuracy to a few seconds is too inadequate and synchronisation to the millisecond becomes essential.

Computers use time for every transaction and process they do and you only have to think back to the furore caused by the millennium bug to appreciate the importance computer’s place on time. When there is not precise enough synchronisation then all sorts of errors and problems can occur, particularly with time sensitive transactions.

Its not just transactions that can fail without adequate synchronisation but time stamps are used in computer log files so if something goes wrong or if a malicious user has invaded (which is very easy to do without adequate synchronisation) it can take a long time to discover what went wrong and even longer to fix the problems.

A lack of synchronisation can also have other effects such as data loss or failed retrieval it can also leave a company defenceless in any potential legal argument as a badly or unsynchronised network can be impossible to audit.

Millisecond synchronisation is however, not the headache many administrators assume it is going to be. Many opt to take advantage of many of the online timeservers that are available on the internet but in doing so can generate more problems than it solves such as having to leave the UDP port open in the firewall (to allow the timing information through) not-to-mention no guaranteed level of accuracy from the public time server.

A better and simpler solution is to use a dedicated network time server that uses the protocol NTP (Network Time Protocol). A NTP time server will plug straight into a network and use the GPS (Global Positioning System) or specialist radio transmissions to receive the time direct from an atomic clock and distribute it amongst the network.

The Concept of Time

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Time is something that we are all familiar with, it governs our lives even more so than money and we are constantly ‘at war’ with time as we battle to conduct our daily tasks before it runs out.

Yet when we start to examine time we discover that the concept of time we begin to realise that a non-ending linear distance between different events that we call time is purely a human invention.

Of course time exists but it certainly doesn’t follow the rules that the human concept of time does. It is not never ending or constant and changes and warps depending on speed of observers and the pull of gravity. In fact it was Einstein’s theories on relativity that gave human kind its first glimpse as to what time really is and how it affects our daily lives.

Einstein described a four-dimensional space-time, where time and space are inextricably woven together. This space-time gets warped and bent by gravity slowing time (or our perception of it). Einstein also, he suggested that the speed of light was the only constant in the universe and time altered depending on the relative speed to it.

When it comes to keeping track of time, Einstein’s theories can hamper any attempts at chronology. If both gravity and relative speed can affect time then it becomes difficult to measure time accurately.

We long ago abandoned the idea of using the celestial bodies and Earth’s rotation as a reference for our timekeeping as it was recognised in the early twentieth century that Earth’s rotation wasn’t at all accurate or reliable. Instead, we have depended n the oscillations of atoms to keep track of time. Atomic clocks measure atomic ticks of particular atoms and our concept of time is based on these ticks with every second being equal to over 9 billion oscillation of the caesium atom.

Even though we now base time on atomic oscillations, technologies such as GPS satellites (Global Positioning System) still have to counter the effects of lower gravity. In fact the effects of time can be monitored so accurately thanks to atomic clocks that those at different altitudes above sea level run at slightly differing speeds which has to be compensated for.

Atomic clocks can also be used to synchronise a computer network ensuring that they are running as accurately as possible. Most NTP time servers operate by utilising and distributing the time signal broadcast by an atomic clock (either through GPS or long wave) using the protocol NTP (Network Time Protocol).